Natural Antihistamines for Dogs: A Holistic Approach to Allergy Relief
Histamines are essential chemical compounds in a dog's body, playing various roles, but they are most commonly known for their involvement in the immune system's response to allergens. When a dog encounters an allergen, histamine acts as a "bodyguard," initiating a defense mechanism to remove the perceived threat. This can manifest as sneezing, itching, watery eyes, or other symptoms designed to expel or prevent further exposure to the allergen. While uncomfortable, this is a natural protective process. It's during these times that pet parents often seek antihistamines to alleviate their dog's allergic reactions.
Environmental Allergies in Dogs: Understanding the Triggers
Environmental allergies, also known as atopy, are common in dogs, with many showing signs of seasonal sensitivities as early as puppyhood, though most cases develop by age three. However, dogs can develop these allergies later in life as well. Similar to humans, dogs can react to a variety of environmental allergens that fluctuate with the seasons.
Common environmental allergens include:
Pollen (from trees, grasses, and weeds)
Grass
Weeds
Mould (both outdoor and indoor varieties)
Dust mites (these can be more prevalent indoors, especially during cooler months when windows are closed and heating is on, or during intense spring cleaning that stirs them up)
Leaf mould
The timing of symptoms often provides a strong clue regarding environmental allergies. If symptoms tend to intensify during spring and fall but subside in winter and summer, an environmental cause is highly probable. It's worth noting that summer heat can sometimes exacerbate existing skin issues in allergic dogs, even if the primary allergen's presence is lower.
Watch for these common symptoms as the seasons change:
Excessive licking of paws
Generalised hair loss
Watery eyes
Runny nose
Constant scratching, chewing, or biting at the skin
Skin damage, including redness, sores, or hot spots, resulting from self-trauma
Recurrent ear infections (often a secondary symptom of underlying allergies)
Gastric reflux or other digestive upsets, as the immune system is interconnected throughout the body.
Hidden Dangers of Allergy Drugs Like Appoquel and Cytopoint:
Why a Natural Approach May Be Healthier for the Long-Term
For dogs experiencing intense itching, red inflamed skin, or recurring ear infections, conventional veterinary medicine often turns to fast-acting pharmaceutical interventions like Appoquel (oclacitinib) and Cytopoint (lokivetmab). These drugs are marketed as “miracle cures” for canine allergies due to their ability to quickly stop itching — but at what cost?
Appoquel: Suppressing Symptoms, Not Solving the Root Cause
Appoquel works by suppressing a specific enzyme involved in the immune response (Janus Kinase 1 or JAK1). This enzyme plays a role in the transmission of itch signals and inflammation. While the drug is effective in rapidly reducing pruritus (itch), it does so by modulating the immune system, rather than addressing why the immune system is overreacting in the first place.
Concerns with Appoquel include:
Immune suppression: Appoquel interferes with cytokine signalling, which can hinder the body’s ability to fight infections and regulate cell growth. This raises concerns about increased susceptibility to infections and even cancer over time [1].
Side effects: Dogs may experience vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia, lethargy, or increased aggression and anxiety — all noted in post-market surveillance reports.
Long-term dependency: Because it only controls symptoms, discontinuation often results in a rebound of symptoms, sometimes worse than before.
Inappropriate for dogs under 12 months or those with serious infections: Appoquel’s immunosuppressive effects make it contraindicated in young puppies and immunocompromised dogs.
A study published in the Veterinary Dermatology Journal also indicated that dogs on Appoquel had a statistically significant increase in susceptibility to demodectic mange, papilloma virus infections, and other opportunistic pathogens [2].
Cytopoint: A Biologic Band-Aid?
Cytopoint, on the other hand, is an injectable monoclonal antibody therapy designed to neutralise interleukin-31 (IL-31), a key itch-inducing cytokine in dogs. While often perceived as a “safer” option compared to Apoquel, Cytopoint is not without its controversies.
Key issues include:
Immune system interference: Like Apoquel, Cytopoint bypasses addressing the root cause of the allergy and instead dampens the immune system’s itch signals. This may disrupt normal immune surveillance over time.
Adverse reactions: Though less commonly discussed, pet parents in numerous anecdotal reports have observed side effects such as lethargy, vomiting, diarrhoea, personality changes, trembling, and even seizures. In rare cases, dogs have developed autoimmune-like symptoms following Cytopoint injections.
Lack of transparency in long-term data: While touted as “safe,” long-term studies are limited, and some experts argue we still don’t fully understand the long-range immune consequences of blocking cytokines like IL-31.
In fact, the WSAVA (World Small Animal Veterinary Association) notes that the mechanism of monoclonal antibodies is still being evaluated in terms of how repeated immune modulation might impact the canine immune system long-term [3].
The Problem with Suppression: Why Symptoms Matter
Itching, inflammation, and ear infections are not random occurrences — they are warning signals from the body, indicating something is wrong. Suppressing these symptoms may provide short-term relief, but it risks pushing the disease process deeper into the body. According to the principles of holistic medicine and Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine (TCVM), suppressing symptoms without addressing the underlying cause may lead to more complex or internal health conditions down the line, such as autoimmune disease, chronic gut dysbiosis, or endocrine imbalances.
A Natural Approach Supports Long-Term Healing
Instead of turning to immune-suppressive drugs as a first line of defence, holistic and integrative practitioners aim to support the body in returning to balance. This involves:
Strengthening the gut microbiome, where most of the immune system resides.
Reducing the toxic load on the liver and kidneys by avoiding unnecessary medications and chemicals.
Identifying and eliminating dietary triggers or environmental allergens through elimination diets and testing.
Supporting immune regulation, not suppression, through nutraceuticals like quercetin, medicinal mushrooms, omega-3s, and adaptogenic herbs.
Most importantly, a natural approach aims to resolve the underlying imbalances causing the allergic response — not just quiet the symptoms temporarily.
When Natural Isn’t Enough: Finding a Middle Ground
There may be situations where the symptoms are so severe that pharmaceutical intervention is temporarily necessary to provide relief. In these cases, the goal should still be to use such medications judiciously and short-term, alongside a plan to uncover and address root causes with the support of a qualified integrative or holistic veterinarian.
In Summary:
“Suppression is not healing. True wellness comes when we stop masking symptoms and start listening to them.”
While drugs like Appoquel and Cytopoint can offer temporary relief, they are not a long-term solution and come with potential risks that many pet parents are never fully informed about. Opting for a holistic approach that strengthens your dog’s immune system, balances their gut health, and reduces environmental triggers can offer not just symptom relief, but true, lasting wellness.
Why Prescription Antihistamines May Not Always Be the First Choice
While prescription antihistamines like diphenhydramine (often found in products like Benadryl, and similar to Piriton in its effects) are generally considered safe by the veterinary community when dosed correctly, they can have potential side effects that some pet parents prefer to avoid. These may include:
Drowsiness or Sedation: A common side effect, especially with first-generation antihistamines.
Gastrointestinal Upset: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or decreased appetite can occur.
Dry Mucous Membranes: Leading to dry mouth, oesophagus, and even the gut, due to anticholinergic effects.
Liver Enzyme Elevation: While less common, prolonged use or high doses can potentially impact liver health.
Interference with Digestive Enzymes: Some antihistamines may affect the activity of enzymes responsible for breaking down histamines in the digestive tract.
Paradoxical Excitement: In some dogs (and especially cats), instead of sedation, hyperexcitability can occur.
Urinary Retention: Due to anticholinergic effects.
Cardio toxicity: High doses of some second-generation antihistamines have been linked to cardiac issues.
It's crucial to acknowledge that for some dogs, prescription antihistamines are a necessary part of managing severe allergies, and their benefits may outweigh the potential risks. Always consult with your holistic or integrative veterinarian before administering any medication to your dog to ensure proper dosage and suitability for their individual health needs.
Prepping for Environmental Allergies in Dogs: A Proactive Approach
Getting your dog's body ready before allergy season hits can significantly mitigate symptoms. This involves a multi-faceted approach focusing on internal health and environmental management.
1. Heal the Gut: The Foundation of Immune Health
A dog's allergy symptoms can be significantly exacerbated if their digestive system is not functioning optimally. The gut plays a critical role in immune system regulation, as approximately 70-80% of the immune system resides within the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) [4].
Histamine is a key mediator in allergic and inflammatory responses. It's released by mast cells as part of the body's defense against perceived "foreign invaders." A balanced gut environment is essential for a balanced histamine and immune response. The gut microbiome, a complex community of trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi, plays a vital role. A healthy gut is characterized by a diverse and abundant population of beneficial bacteria that help keep pathogenic (harmful) bacteria in check.
A robust gut lining acts as a protective barrier, preventing unwanted allergens and toxins from entering the bloodstream. If the gut lining is compromised (often referred to as "leaky gut syndrome"), allergens like pollen, even if ingested through paw licking, can "leak" into the bloodstream and trigger a systemic allergic reaction.
To foster a healthy gut environment:
Incorporate Prebiotics and Probiotics: prebiotics are non-digestible fibers that feed beneficial gut bacteria, while probiotics introduce live beneficial bacteria to the digestive system [5].
Opt for Fresh, Whole Foods: A diet rich in natural, unprocessed foods provides essential nutrients and supports a healthy microbiome.
Minimise Harsh Antibiotics and Drugs: While sometimes necessary, antibiotics can disrupt the delicate balance of the gut microbiome. Use them judiciously under veterinary guidance.
Reduce Stress: Chronic stress can negatively impact gut health and immune function.
Address Leaky Gut Syndrome: This involves specific dietary and supplemental interventions to repair the gut lining, often with the guidance of a holistic veterinarian.
Support Detoxification Organs: The liver, kidneys, and other organs involved in detoxification play a crucial role in processing and eliminating substances that can contribute to allergic reactions.
2. Optimize with Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Omega 3 fatty acids, particularly EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), are renowned for their potent anti-inflammatory properties. These fatty acids can help modulate the immune response, reducing the intensity of allergic reactions. Their benefits extend beyond allergy relief, contributing to joint health, pain management, and overall immune system modulation [6]. Sustainable alternatives to traditional fish oil, such as algae or calamari derived omega-3 supplements, offer high levels of EPA and DHA without the environmental impact on ocean ecosystems.
3. Address Yeast Overgrowth
yeast, particularly Malassezia pachydermatis, is a common opportunistic organism on canine skin. Environmental allergies can create conditions that favor yeast overgrowth, leading to heightened symptoms. For instance, allergy-induced inflammation in the ear canal can narrow it, reducing airflow and creating a warm, moist environment perfect for yeast proliferation. Similarly, persistent paw licking due to allergies can keep paws damp, leading to yeast infections. Addressing yeast at its root cause is crucial for comprehensive allergy management.
4. Prioritise Natural Bedding
The materials in your dog's bedding can significantly impact their exposure to allergens and opportunistic microbes. Synthetic materials tend to harbour pathogenic bacteria, yeast, mould, and dust mites more readily than natural, breathable materials like cotton and bamboo. Good airflow discourages the growth of these undesirable elements.
If replacing your dog's entire bed isn't feasible, regularly washing it in hot water is beneficial. Adding a drop of organic lavender essential oil to the wash can also contribute to cleanliness. Placing a cotton or bamboo towel or sheet on top of the bed provides a breathable layer that can be washed frequently.
5. Support Liver Function
A healthy liver is paramount for overall health, including proper histamine breakdown and effective detoxification. The liver is responsible for metabolising and eliminating various substances from the body, including histamines and other inflammatory compounds [7].
Several herbs are known to support liver function and boost its detoxification capabilities:
Celandine (Chelidonium majus): May help protect the liver while combating harmful organisms.
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale): A well-known liver detoxifier and diuretic, aiding in the elimination of toxins.
Barberry (Berberis vulgaris): Possesses properties that may inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria and enhance immune function.
Milk thistle (Silybum marianum): Widely recognized for its liver-protective properties. It stabilises liver cell membranes, offers antioxidant protection against free radical damage, supports the regeneration of healthy liver cells, and enhances the liver's ability to filter toxins from the blood [8].
These herbs can be beneficial individually, but they often exert a more potent synergistic effect when combined in a well-formulated liver support supplement.
Helping Your Dog Cope with Seasonal Allergies: Ongoing Strategies
Once allergy symptoms emerge, several strategies can help alleviate your dog's discomfort.
1. Quercertin: "Nature's Antihistamine"
Quercertin, a flavonoid found in many plants, is a cornerstone of natural allergy support due to its ability to modulate various biological pathways and immune cell functions involved in allergic responses. Research highlights its ability to modulate various biological pathways and immune cell functions involved in allergic responses [Mlcek et al., 2016]. Specifically, quercertin is known to:
Inhibit Histamine Release: It directly helps stabilise mast cells, preventing them from releasing histamine and other inflammatory mediators that trigger allergy symptoms like itching and swelling. [9].
Reduce Pro-inflammatory Cytokines and Leukotrienes: It can decrease the production of substances that drive inflammation, such as interleukin (IL)-4, IL-6, and IL-8, and inhibit the creation of leukotrienes, which are potent inflammatory compounds.
Improve Th1/Th2 Balance: Quercetin can help balance the immune system's T-helper cell responses, potentially restraining the overproduction of IgE antibodies, which are central to allergic reactions.
Act as an Antioxidant: Its strong antioxidant activity helps scavenge free radicals, reducing oxidative stress that can worsen inflammation and allergic responses.
You can increase quercetin in your dog's diet by incorporating foods such as:
Berries (blueberries, raspberries, strawberries)
Apples (especially the skin, pureed for digestibility)
Green tea (brewed and cooled, added to water or food)
Kale
Broccoli
Asparagus
Remember that quercertin is a long-term remedy, and consistent intake is key to seeing its benefits.
Important note on Quercertin; Some recent studies have shown that it may take quite a few weeks for quercetin to take effect in the body, so it should be used thoughtfully as an preemptive remedy, rather than just a one-time fix. For example, if you know your dog has seasonal allergies, start give quercetin to your dog a month or two before springtime to "prep" the dog's body for the upcoming seasonal assault.
Do not give quercetin to dogs with kidney disease. Always consult with your veterinarian before starting any new supplement, especially if your dog has pre-existing health conditions or is on medication.
2. Bovine Colostrum
Bovine colostrum for dog allergies is a powerful immune modulator. This "first milk" produced by cows is packed with immunoglobulins (antibodies) and proline-rich polypeptides (PRPs) [Hurley & Theil, 2011]. PRPs are particularly interesting for allergy management as they can help regulate the immune response, inhibiting the activity of immune cells responsible for allergic reactions and inflammation. They can also increase suppressor T-cells and helper T-cells, crucial for a balanced immune system, thereby reducing the intensity of histamine-driven allergic symptoms [Keech, 2007]. By helping to restore gut integrity and modulate the immune system, colostrum can significantly support a dog fighting environmental allergies.
3. Ethically Sourced Local Bee Pollen
Bee pollen for dog allergies acts much like a natural immunotherapy. When sourced locally and ethically, it contains trace amounts of the very pollens that trigger environmental allergies in your dog. By introducing these small amounts, the dog's immune system can gradually build tolerance, similar to how desensitization shots work. It's also rich in vitamins, minerals, enzymes, and antioxidants, further supporting overall immune health. Start with a very tiny amount and gradually increase to ensure no adverse reaction. Always ensure it's from a reputable source that practices ethical beekeeping.
4. Astragalus
Astragalus for dog allergies (Astragalus membranaceus) is a powerful adaptogenic herb known for its immune-modulating properties. It doesn't just boost the immune system; it helps to balance it, making it an excellent choice for allergies where the immune system is overreacting. Astragalus can help reduce inflammatory responses, support the adrenal glands (which play a role in stress response and inflammation), and improve the body's overall resilience to environmental stressors, including allergens. It can be particularly beneficial for long-term immune support during allergy season.
5. Gentle Skin Care: Rethinking Laundry & Bathing
While removing environmental allergens from your dog's skin and coat is crucial, using harsh laundry soaps and shampoos can strip the skin of its natural beneficial bacteria, which form a vital part of the skin's defence mechanism against harmful bacteria and environmental insults [10]. The skin microbiome is just as important as the gut microbiome for immune health. We recommend using the Helios pet shampoo or the Lucaa pet probiotic shampoo. For gentle and chemical free laundry care - head to our article linked here.
More gentle cleansing methods include:
Probiotic Yogurt Mask: To bolster the skin microbiome, apply a mask made from organic yogurt. Use a ratio of 3 tablespoons of organic yogurt to 1/2 teaspoon of a probiotic supplement containing at least 10 strains and 30 billion CFUs (adjusting amounts for larger dogs). Leave the mask on for at least 15-30 minutes, ensuring your dog remains comfortable. Rinse with water only. This can be done twice a week, with tea rinses used in between or after outdoor excursions.
6. Homeopathy for Symptom Relief
Homeopathic remedies, chosen based on an individual's specific symptoms, can be helpful in curbing allergy discomfort. It is crucial to consult with a qualified animal homeopath for a personalized plan, especially for severe or chronic conditions. Some commonly used remedies for allergy symptoms include:
Aconite and Arnica: Often given together for acute, intense itching where the dog has scratched their skin raw. Doses such as 30c or 200c can be repeated every hour for 3-4 times.
Sulphur, Berberis, Nux Vomica, Echinacea, Graphites: These can be used in combination for chronic allergy symptoms. A typical approach might be twice a day for 7 days, then as needed.
Thuja and Silica: Considered useful if allergy symptoms appear to have originated or worsened following a vaccination, even several months later. A common recommendation might be twice a day for 2 days, then repeated as needed.
Important Note on Homeopathy: If symptoms worsen after administering a homeopathic remedy, discontinue immediately and re-evaluate after 3 days. Often, symptoms may initially "aggravate" before showing improvement. For severe cases, always seek professional guidance from an animal homeopath.
7. "Cross-Species Contamination" (Beneficial Bacterial Exchange)
Encouraging the exchange of beneficial bacteria between you and your dog can contribute to a more diverse and robust microbial environment for your pet. Before showering or bathing, gently rub a clean cotton towel over your own healthy skin. Place this towel on your dog's bed. The natural bacteria and pheromones transferred can contribute to a healthier microbial community for your dog and provide a sense of comfort and closeness.
8. "Dirt Therapy" for Microbiome Exposure
Allowing your dog controlled exposure to varied outdoor microbiomes can be beneficial. Consider filling a small kiddie pool with organic dirt, compost, and manure from a reputable nursery. Let your dog roll, dig, and play in it. You can even add water to create mud. After play, hose them off with plain water, avoiding soap, to leave the beneficial microbes on their skin. For apartment dwellers, flat flower planters filled with similar organic materials can serve the same purpose.
9. Minimise Stress
Stress can significantly impact a dog's immune system, leading to elevated cortisol levels that can exacerbate allergic reactions and intensify itching [11].
Comfortable Cones (If Necessary): If a veterinary cone (Elizabethan collar) is required to prevent self-trauma, choose a soft, flexible, or inflatable option rather than rigid, restrictive ones to minimise stress.
Provide Mental and Physical Stimulation: Boredom can lead to stress. Offer engaging activities like raw bones to chew, puzzle toys, or regular walks and playtime.
Consider CBD Oil: A high-quality CBD oil can help reduce anxiety and stress levels, potentially lessening the urge to scratch and improving overall well-being. Always choose a product specifically formulated for pets and consult your veterinarian for appropriate dosing.
Maintain Physical Connection: Even if your dog has skin issues, continue to touch and comfort them. Physical affection is crucial for their emotional well-being and prevents feelings of isolation.
Managing environmental allergies in dogs requires patience and a comprehensive, holistic approach. By focusing on gut health, providing natural immune support, maintaining healthy skin, and reducing stress, you can significantly mitigate your dog's symptoms and help them lead a more comfortable life.
Paw Soaks for Allergen Relief and Histamine Reduction
Many dogs experience seasonal allergies through their paws, especially when allergens like pollen or mould are absorbed transdermally through contact with grass or soil. This can cause excessive licking, redness, swelling, or yeast overgrowth.
Daily or every-other-day paw soaks can offer soothing relief and reduce allergen load.
1. Apple Cider Vinegar (ACV) Paw Soak - For yeasty, smelly paws.
ACV helps restore the skin’s natural pH, inhibit yeast overgrowth, and reduce inflammation.
How to use: Mix 1 part organic, raw, unfiltered ACV to 2 parts warm water. Soak paws for 3–5 minutes. Pat dry. Avoid use on broken or raw skin as ACV will sting if applied to open wounds.
2. Herbal Tea Paw Soaks (Chamomile or Green Tea) - For mild irritation & allergies
Both Chamomile and green tea are known for calming inflammation and soothing the skin. They also have natural anti-inflammatory and antihistamine properties. They are especially useful when paws are itchy, red, or inflamed.
How to use: Steep 3–5 organic decaffeinated tea bags (loose tea is preferred if you have it) in a jug of 3-4 cups (700-90l) hot filtered water. Let it cool completely. Soak paws for 5 to 10 minutes. Do not rinse—allow the tea to dry into the skin.
3. Pau d’Arco Infusion
Studies have shown Pau d’Arco’s antifungal ability may be as good as the drug ketoconazole aswell as being antibacterial and antiviral. Pau d’Arco Is a powerful herbal remedy derived from the inner bark of the Tabebuia tree, native to South America. Long celebrated in traditional medicine across Brazil, Argentina, and Peru, this herb is now gaining popularity in the holistic pet wellness space — especially for dogs struggling with allergies, chronic inflammation, and immune dysregulation.
Pau d’Arco contains compounds like lapachol and beta-lapachone, which have been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory effects by reducing the production of inflammatory cytokines.
A 2017 study in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology noted Pau d’Arco’s modulation of inflammation pathways and its potential use in inflammatory skin conditions
This is a great paw soak for yeast, dermatitis and warts.
Recipe: Add 5-30g Pau D’Arco per 1 cup of water.
1 tablespoon dried calendula flowers
2 Cupes (475ml) warm filtered water
1/4 cup (60ml) organic ACV with the mother
How to use: Soak paws, or use as a rinse post-walk to combat yeast and environmental allergens.
Our Favourite Natural Antihistamine Supplements
These are well-formulated, holistic supplements that we trust and recommend within our community:
United Kingdom
United States & Canada
Australia
• Australia pet nutrition allergy bundle
• Animal Botanical Immunity Support Mix
As with any supplement, always start with a small amount and monitor your dog closely. Not every supplement suits every dog, and reactions—although rare—can happen.
Sources
Little, P. R., et al. (2015). “Efficacy and safety of oclacitinib for the control of pruritus and associated skin lesions in dogs with canine allergic dermatitis.” Veterinary Dermatology, 26(3), 171–e35.
Cosgrove, S. B., et al. (2013). “Evaluation of oclacitinib maleate for the control of pruritus in dogs with allergic dermatitis.” Veterinary Dermatology, 24(5), 479–e114.
WSAVA Global Vaccination Guidelines & Immune Response Papers, 2023.
Vancauwenberghe, S., et al. (2012). The canine gut microbiome and its association with health and disease. Veterinary Microbiology, 157(3-4), 282-290. (While this specific paper might not be directly accessible, the concept of GALT and its importance is fundamental in veterinary immunology.)
Schreiner, R., et al. (2020). Prebiotics and Probiotics in Companion Animal Nutrition: Benefits and Applications. Animals, 10(10), 1774. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/10/1774 (This is a general reference for pre/probiotics; specific brand claims need independent verification).
Lenox, C. E. (2016). The impact of dietary fatty acids on the canine inflammatory response. Topics in Companion Animal Medicine, 31(2), 52-56. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27847055/
, D. A., et al. (2014). Canine Liver Disease: A Guide for Veterinary Professionals. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 44(2), 173-195. (General reference on liver function, not specific to histamine breakdown but implies it through detoxification.)
Kianian, T. S., & Ghafari, H. (2018). Therapeutic Effects of Milk Thistle (Silybum marianum) on Liver Diseases. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 12(1), QE01-QE04. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5798226/ (This is a human study, but the mechanisms of action for milk thistle are generally considered applicable across species.)
Weng, Z., et al. (2012). Quercetin inhibits histamine release from human mast cells in vitro. Journal of Biological Regulators and Homeostatic Agents, 26(3), 329-335. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23164996/ (While this is an in vitro human study, it supports the mechanism of action for quercetin on mast cells).
Rodrigues Hoffman, A., & Patterson, A. P. (2017). The Skin Microbiome: Implications for Health and Disease in Companion Animals. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 47(4), 921-931. https://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/49/2017/04/Skin-microbiome-vet-clin-NA-small-animal-practice-2017.pdf
Reeder, D. M., & Kramer, K. M. (2005). Stress and Immunity: An Ecological Perspective. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 36, 605-628. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.091703.144139 (General reference on stress and immunity, applicable to canine physiology).
